Sunday, 18 November 2012
Evaluation
Implementation & Evaluation
To create a ‘PERFECT ADVERTISEMENT’, not just the message, but also how well the message is communicated should be well thought of. There are many appeals and execution styles that can be adopted by the advertisers to complete the creation of the advertisement. But the right combination of appeal and style should be chosen to create the desired effect on the customers.
Appeals & Execution Styles
The advertising appeal refers to
the approach used to attract the attention of consumers and/or to influence
their feelings toward the product, service, or cause. An advertising appeal can
also be viewed as “something that moves people, speaks to their wants or needs,
and excites their interest.”
The creative execution style is the way a particular appeal is turned
into an advertising message presented to the consumer.
Advertising Appeals
Hundreds of advertising appeals
are used as the basis for advertising messages. But these appeals can be
broadly divided into two broad categories –
1 Informational/Rational appeal- This kind of appeal focuses on the consumer’s practical, functional, or utilitarian need for the product or service and emphasizes features of a product or service and/or the benefits or reasons for owning or using a particular brand on the consumer’s rational. The objective is to persuade the target audience to buy the brand because it is the best available or does a better job of meeting consumers’ needs by appealing rationally.
Some of the
rational appeals are feature appeal, competitive advantage appeal, favorable price appeals, news appeal, etc.
Below is the
table for examples:
 |
| Examples of Rational Appeals |
2 Emotional Appeal -Emotional appeals relate to the customers’ social and/or psychological needs for purchasing a product or service. Many consumers’ motives for their purchase decisions are emotional, and their feelings about a brand can be more important than knowledge of its features or attributes. Advertisers for many products and services view rational, information-based appeals as dull.
Examples of
emotional appeals are self-esteem, safety, fear factor, pleasure, ambition,
comfort, acceptance, achievement and rejection.
For example,
Mountain Dew advertised by appealing to the feeling of achievement. McDonald’s
changed its advertising strategy recently and is putting more emotion in its
commercials to evoke a feel-good connection with consumers.
A reason to
use the emotionally appealing advertisements is to influence customer’s
interpretations of the usage of a product. This can be done by using
Transformational advertisements. A transformational ad is defined as “one which
associates the experience of using (consuming) the advertised brand with a
unique set of psychological characteristics which would not typically be
associated with the brand experience to the same degree without exposure to the
advertisement.
The “reach out and touch
someone” campaign used by AT&T for many years to encourage consumers to
keep in touch with family and friends by phone is an example of the successful
use of transformational advertising.
Combining Rational & Emotional appeal: Generally the question is not whether to use emotional or rational appeal but how to combine both of them to create the desired effect as consumers use both rational and emotional motives while purchasing the product.
Advertising Execution
Creative execution is the way an
advertising appeal is presented. While it is obviously important for an ad to
have a meaningful appeal or message to communicate to the consumer, the manner
in which the ad is executed is also important.
An advertising message can be
presented in numerous ways:
- · Straight sell or factual message
- · Animation
- · Scientific/technical evidence
- · Personality symbol
- · Demonstration
- · Fantasy
- · Comparison
- · Dramatization
- · Testimonial
- · Humor
- · Slice of life
- · Combinations
Components of Advertising
Print Ads
Headlines –
the text in the leading position of the Ad
Body Copy –
the main text portion of a Print Ad
Visual
Elements – Illustrations Such As Drawings or Photos
Layout - How
Elements Are Blended Into a Finished Ad
TV Ads
Videos & Audios using
jingles, voice-over, music, needle drop, etc.
Once, the story board and the
animation is finalised, the advertisement is moved to production phase which
involves three stages:
Preproduction stage – all the
work and activities that occur before the actual shooting/ recording of the
commercial.
Production - the period during
which the commercial is filmed or videotaped and recorded.
Post production - activities and
work that occur after the commercial has been filmed and recorded.
 |
| Tasks at each step |
Guidelines for Evaluation & Approval of the creative work
The evaluation of the
advertisements is mostly subjective in nature though sometimes the evaluators
use quantitative information.
Some of the subjective cues that
are used to evaluate an advertisement are:
- · Is the creative approach consistent with the brand’s marketing and advertising objectives?
- · Is the creative approach consistent with the creative strategy and objectives? Does it communicate what it is supposed to?
- · Is the creative approach appropriate for the target audience?
- · Does the creative approach communicate a clear and convincing message to the customer?
- · Does the creative execution keep from overwhelming the message?
- · Is the creative approach appropriate for the media environment in which it is likely to be seen?
- · Is the ad truthful and tasteful?
Media Strategy
Media Planning and Strategy
Before we mention anything about media planning and strategy, it is important for the readers to understand the terminologies involved in this exercise. Some of these are mentioned below:
Media - The various categories of delivery systems, including
broadcast and print media
Broadcast Media - Either radio or television network or local
station broadcasts
Print Media - Publications such as newspapers and magazines
Media Planning - A series of decisions involving the delivery of
messages to audiences
Media Objectives - Goals to be attained by the media strategy
and program
Media Strategy - Decisions on how the media objectives can be
attained
Media Vehicle - The specific message carrier, such as the
Washington Post or 60 Minutes
Coverage - The potential audience that might receive the message
through the vehicle
Reach - The actual number of individual audience members reached
at least once by the vehicle in a given period of time
Frequency - The number of times the receiver is exposed to
vehicle in a specific time period
There are several activities involved in developing a media plan. each activity has its own purpose and a set of tasks to complete that activity. These activities are shown in the figure below.
Developing the media plan
Market Analysis
The key questions to be addressed in this stage are:
- To whom shall we advertise (who is the target market)?
- What internal and external factors may influence the media plan?
- Where and when should we focus our efforts?
To whom shall we advertise?
There are many indicators developed by different agencies but generally the sources of data used in calculating these indicators are questioned by experts. Also, sometimes the data used to obtain these indicators might not be sufficient or accurate and thus might yield to misleading results. Therefore, tmost of the agencies use the index number.
The index number is the best indicator of the potential of a market. This number is derived from the formula
What internal and external factors may influence the media plan?
Internal factors:
- The size of the media budget
- Managerial and administrative capabilities
- The organization of the agency
- The economy (the rising costs of media)
- Changes in technology (the availability of new media)
- Competitive factors
Where to promote?
Several indices that are used to determine where to promote (geographically) are as follows:
1. Survey of buying power index - is based on a number of factors including population, effective buying income, and total retail sales in the area. Each of these factors is individually weighted to drive a buying power index that charts the potential of a particular metro area, county, or city. The resulting index gives media planners an insight into the relative value of that market.
2. Brand development index (BDI) - helps marketers factor the rate of product usage by geographic area into the decision process. It compares the percentage of the brand’s total country sales in a given market
area with the percentage of the total population in the market to determine the sales
potential for that brand in that market area.
3. Category development index (CDI) - provides information on the potential for development of the total product category rather than specific brands.
This index is generally used in conjunction with BDI.
Media objectives
Example:
Create awareness in the target market through the following:
- Use broadcast media to provide coverage of 80 percent of the target market over a six-month period
- Reach 60 percent of the target audience at least three times over the same six month period
- Concentrate heaviest advertising in winter and spring, with lighter emphasis in summer and fall
Developing and implementing media strategies
Having determined what is to be accomplished, in the following stage of developing and implementing media strategies media planners consider how to achieve these objectives. several criteria are considered while developing media plans:
- The media mix
- Target market coverage
- Geographic coverage
- Scheduling
- Reach vs frequency
- Creative aspect and mood
- Flexibility
- Budget considerations
Testing Process
Testing Process For measuring effectiveness of promotional programs
Testing takes place throughout different points during any campaign. The figure below shows the different testing points.
Concept Testing
This
test is conducted very early in the campaign development process in order to explore
the targeted consumer’s response to a potential ad or campaign or have the consumer
evaluate advertising alternatives. Positioning statements, copy, headlines,
and/or illustrations may all be under scrutiny. The material to be evaluated
may be just a headline or a rough sketch of the ad. The colors used, typeface,
package designs, and even point-of-purchase materials may be evaluated. The
Figure below shows the concept testing methodology:
One
way of doing the concept testing is by using Focus Groups. But the usage of
focus groups has its advantages and disadvantages:
Advantages
•
Results easily
obtained, observable, immediate
•
Multiple
issues can be examined
•
In-depth
feedback is obtained
Disadvantages
•
Results not
quantifiable
•
Sample size
too small
•
Group
influence may bias responses
•
Some members
may dominate discussion
•
Participants
become instant “experts”
•
Members may
not represent target market
•
Results may be
given too much weight
Rough Art, Copy, and Commercial
Testing
Rough
tests must indicate how the finished commercial would perform. Some studies
have demonstrated that these testing methods are reliable and the results
typically correlate well with the finished ad. Most of the tests conducted at
the rough stage involve lab settings, although some on-air field tests are also
available. Popular tests include comprehension and reaction tests and consumer
juries. In short both the method is explained in the diagram below:
During
the process of rough testing there are certain terminologies used which one
should keep in mind while dealing with this. The diagram below gives a detailed
explanation of the required terminology:
Pretesting of Finished Ads
Pretesting
finished ads is one of the more commonly employed studies among marketing researchers
and their agencies. At this stage, a finished advertisement or commercials used;
since it has not been presented to the market, changes can still be made.
Print methods include portfolio tests,
analyses of readability, and dummy advertising vehicles. Broadcast tests
include theater tests and on-air tests. Both print and broadcast may use
physiological measures.
A number of methods for pretesting finished print ads are available. The most common of
these methods are portfolio tests, readability tests, and dummy advertising
vehicles. The diagram below gives a brief description of the same:
A
variety of methods for pretesting broadcast ads are available. The most popular
are theater tests, on-air tests, and physiological measures.
Theater Test: In theater tests participants are invited by
telephone, mall intercepts, and/or tickets in the mail to view pilots of
proposed TV programs. In some instances, the show is actually being tested, but
more commonly a standard program is used so audience responses can be compared
with normative responses established by previous viewers. It measures changes in product preferences. It may
also measure Interest in and reaction to the commercial, reaction from an
adjective checklist, recall of various aspects included Interest in the brand
presented Continuous (frame-by-frame) reactions.
On-Air Tests: Some of the firms conducting theater tests also
insert the commercials into actual TV programs in certain test markets.
Typically, the commercials are in finished form, although the testing of ads
earlier in the developmental process is becoming more common. This is referred
to as an on-air test and often includes single-source ad research. On-air testing techniques offer all the advantages
of field methodologies, as well as all the disadvantages. Further, there are
negative aspects to the specific measures taken through the on-air systems. One
concern is associated with day-after recall scores, the primary measure used in
these tests.
Physiological Measures: A less
common method of pretesting finished commercials involves a laboratory setting
in which physiological responses are measured. These measures indicate the
receiver’s involuntary response to the ad, theoretically eliminating biases
associated with the voluntary measures reviewed to this point. (Involuntary
responses are those over which the individual has no control, such as heartbeat
and reflexes.) Physiological measures used to test both print and broadcast ads
include pupil dilation, galvanic skin response, eye tracking, and brain waves.
1.
Pupil dilation: Research in pupillometrics is
designed to measure dilation and constriction of the pupils of the eyes in
response to stimuli. Dilation is associated with action; constriction involves
the body’s conservation of energy. Pupil
dilation suggests a stronger interest in (or preference for) an ad or implies
arousal or attention-getting capabilities. Because of high costs and some methodological
problems, the use of pupillometrics has waned over the past decade. But it can
be useful in evaluating certain aspects of advertising.
2.
Galvanic skin response: Also known as electrodermal
response, GSR measures the skin’s resistance or conductance to a small amount
of current passed between two electrodes. Response to a stimulus activates
sweat glands, which in turn increases the conductance of the electrical
current. Thus, GSR/EDR activity might reflect a reaction to advertising.
3.
Eye tracking: A methodology that is more
commonly employed is eye tracking; in which viewers are asked to view an ad
while a sensor aims a beam of infrared light at the eye. The beam follows the
movement of the eye and shows the exact spot on which the viewer is focusing.
The continuous reading of responses demonstrates which elements of the ad are
attracting attention, how long the viewer is focusing on them, and the sequence
in which they are being viewed. Eye tracking can identify strengths and
weaknesses in an ad.
4.
Brain waves: Electroencephalographic (EEG)
measures can be taken from the skull to determine electrical frequencies in the
brain. Alpha activity refers to the degree of brain activation. People are in
an alpha state when they are inactive, resting, or sleeping. The theory is that
a person in an alpha state is less likely to be processing information (recall
correlates negatively with alpha levels) and that attention and processing
require moving from this state. Hemispheric lateralization distinguishes
between alpha activity in the left and right sides of the brain. It has been
hypothesized that the right side of the brain processes visual stimuli and the
left processes verbal stimuli.
Market Testing of Ads
This
is referred to as the post-test of ads so as to find out how the tests are
performing in the market.
A
variety of print posttests are
available, including inquiry tests, recognition tests, and recall tests.
Inquiry Tests: Used in
both consumer and business-to-business market testing, inquiry tests are
designed to measure advertising effectiveness on the basis of inquiries
generated from ads appearing in various print media, often referred to as “bingo
cards.” The inquiry may take the form of the number of coupons returned, phone
calls generated, or direct inquiries through reader cards. More complex methods of measuring effectiveness
through inquiries may involve (1) running the ad in successive issues of the
same medium, (2) running split-run tests, in which variations of the ad appear
in different copies of the same newspaper or magazine, and/or (3) running the
same ad in different media. Each of these methods yields information on
different aspects of the strategy. The first measures the cumulative effects of
the campaign; the second examines specific elements of the ad or variations on
it. The final method measures the effectiveness of the medium rather than the ad
itself.
Recognition Tests: Perhaps the most common posttest of print ads is
the recognition method.
Recall Tests: There are several tests to measure recall of
print ads. They are similar to those
discussed in the section on pretesting broadcast ads in that they attempt to
measure recall of specific ads.
A
variety of methods exist for posttesting
broadcast commercials. The most common provide a combination of day after recall
tests, persuasion measures, and diagnostics. Test marketing and tracking studies,
including single-source methods, are also employed.
Measuring Promotion
Need for measuring Effectiveness of the Promotional Program
Promotion
of any product/company is carried out with a distinct objective in mind. Although
companies plan a great promotion strategy, they tend to neglect the most
crucial element of the same. They forget to measure the achievement that is
achieved through the strategy. Every company should remember that measuring the
effectiveness of the promotional program is a critical element in
the promotional planning process. Research allows the marketing manager to
evaluate the performance of specific program elements and provides input
into the next period’s situation analysis. It is a necessary ingredient to
a continuing planning process, yet it is often not carried out. It is
important to determine how well the communications program is working and
to measure this performance against some standards.
Reasons
to measure effectiveness:
·
Avoid costly mistakes
·
Evaluate alternative strategies
·
Increase efficiency in general
·
Determine if objectives are achieved
Some of
the critics have also pointed out some reasons for not to measure the
effectiveness. They are as follows:
·
Cost of measurement
·
Research problems
·
Disagreement on what to test
·
Objections of creative
·
Time
All the above arguments possess weak logic and can
be negated easily. The cost of measurement could be negated when compared to
the loss that is caused if the advertisement is unsuccessful. Similarly the
research problem can be negated by having a presence of a proper plan for the
evaluation and measurement. The disagreement can also be taken care by the same.
After the above discussion we can come to a
conclusion that the measurement will provide us with extra benefits only.
Hence, adopting the process would merge batter with the company’s strategy.
In order to understand the complete mechanism we
will try to answer the complete mechanism using the framework of:
·
What
·
When
·
Where
·
How
What to measure:
Marketers need to determine how the communications
process is being affected by the different promotion programs. Other decisions
made in the promotional planning process must also be evaluated. But Primarily
the components of the communication plan is to be evaluated. The components
are:
·
Source Factors
·
Message variables
·
Media strategies
·
Budget decisions
Where
to measure:
Test Measures can be classified
on the basis of when they are conducted.
·
Pre-testing
·
Post-testing
The testing methods can be further classified as:
Where
to measure:
In addition to when to test the
managers need to take decision about the place where the test should take
place. Ideally the test is taken at two places:
·
Laboratory
·
Field
An important trade-off between
the control the test offers and the realism it offers is made. In the first
place control is high while the latter provides high realism.
How
to measure:
The
first three testing factors were general and designed to establish a basic
understanding of the overall process as well as some key terms. At this stage
it is important to know how these test are conducted. In order to conduct these
tests two primary requirements are :
·
Testing
guidelines
·
Appropriate
tests
Twenty-one
of the largest U.S. ad agencies have endorsed a set of principles aimed at
“improving the research used in preparing and testing ads, providing a better
creative product for clients, and controlling the cost of TV commercials.”14
This set of nine principles, called PACT (Positioning Advertising Copy
Testing), defines copy testing as research “which is undertaken when a decision
is to be made about whether advertising should run in the marketplace. Whether
this stage utilizes a single test or a combination of tests, its purpose is to
aid in the judgment of specific advertising executions.”15 The nine principles
of good copy testing are shown in Figure below:
'
Saturday, 17 November 2012
Objectives Comparision
Sales versus Communications Objectives
What are Objectives?
.Although the terms goals and objectives have related meanings, they have important differences within the context of business management. Goals are broad, abstract targets that are often difficult to measure. However, objectives are much more specific. They rely on clearly defined targets, often using numbers and dates to set limits and deadlines. For example, a non-profit organization with a goal of attracting new donors may have a related objective of issuing 10,000 fliers and making 1,000 phone calls by the end of the month
Communications Objectives
A business communications team, or any type of work team with a communications element, is likely to only have objectives that fall within its area of expertise. For example, a public relations department may have an objective of issuing press releases addressing lawsuits within 24 hours. Likewise, a marketing department may be tasked with producing three new ad campaigns for less than $1 million each that bring customer awareness of a new product, as measured in surveys, to 75 percent.
Sales Objectives
Sales objectives rely on statistical data to set target sales levels over time. Sales objectives don't necessarily need to refer to the number of goods a business sells. Instead they could refer to a revenue target, a number of new customers or a particular number of sales for each member of a sale staff. A computer manufacturer may set a sales objective of 200,000 new laptops in the fiscal quarter. However, unless this objective includes the stipulation that all 200,000 models are sold for the full wholesale price, a sales team could reduce prices to increase sales to retailers and meet the objective without benefiting the company.
Selective Perception
Selective Perception Process in Marketing
Exposure
Exposure describes what occurs when a person is initially
exposed to the external stimulus of a product or brand marketing. It occurs
when the sensory receptors of a consumer are engaged by product or brand cues
through sight, sound, smell, taste and texture.
Attention
In consumer information processing, attention occurs when a
person lingers and gives mental processing capacity to the external stimulus
from a product or brand. Selective perception is when a consumer pays attention
to messages that are consistent with her attitudes, beliefs and needs. When a
product is inconsistent with these factors, the consumer will withdraw
attention.
Comprehension
A person assigns a meaning to the sensory stimulus from a
product or brand marketing. Comprehension is aided by expectations and
familiarity. Store-brand marketing frequently capitalizes on the interpretation
stage when product packaging design contains logos, colors and other elements
that are similar to national brands that consumers are generally more familiar
with.
Retention
The conclusion of the consumer perception process is the
retention stage. This is marked by the storage of product or brand information
in short-term and long-term memory. The marketer's goal is to provide positive
stimuli in the proceeding stages that translate into consumers storing the
information about the product or brand into long-term memory
Decision Making
Consumer Decision Making Process
A consumer goes through several stages before purchasing a
product or service.
Step 1 - Need is an important determinant that helps in buying
of products and services. Need is a crucial catalyst which influences the purchase
decision of individuals.
A person who purchases a bottle of cold drink or a mineral
water bottle initiates the process by identifying his/her need that is thirst.
However, this is simple need and hence, in these cases information collection
and evaluation of alternatives may not be carried out. But both these steps are
important during the purchase of expensive products/services by individuals
such as mobile phones, laptops, cars etc.
Step 2 – After the individual recognizes that he/ she needs
a particular product/service, he will then try to gather more related
information to make an informed decision.
An individual can acquire the required information through
any of the sources as given below:
- Personal Sources – Discussions with friends, family members, co-workers and other acquaintances.
- Commercial sources –Look for external sources such as advertisements, sales people, Packaging content of a particular product, Displays (Props, Mannequins etc.)
- Public sources – Print sources - Newspaper, Magazine and other sources like radio and billboards
- Experiential sources - Individual’s own experience, prior handling of a particular product (Tim would definitely purchase a Dell laptop again if he had already used one)
Step 3 - The next step is to evaluate the various
alternatives available in the market. An individual tries to pick up the best
option available after gathering relevant information that suits his need,
taste and pocket!
Step 4 - After completing all the four stages as given above,
customer finally makes the purchase decision
Step 5 - The purchase of product is then followed by post
purchase evaluation. This basically refers to the individual’s analysis of
satisfaction in terms of whether the product was beneficial to him or not,
whether the product fulfilled his need or not.
Creative Strategy
Advertisements
are called creative. The people who develop ads (TV commercials or print ads)
are known as creative types. Determining what message an advertisement will
communicate is known as creative strategy and determining how creative strategy
will be executed is often known as a creative tactic.
Advertising
creativity is the ability to create solutions to different problems in
communicating a message. It is about generating new and unique ideas that can
be used to develop these solutions.
There
are different schools of thought regarding advertising creativity. Some say it
is only creative and thus effective if the product being advertised, sells.
Others say that creativity lies in the originality and the artistic value
created by the creative types. The later strongly favor that sales should not
be a criterion to judge creativity.
Many
experts believe that advertising is a process and success follows only if an
organized approach is followed in developing creatives. James Webb Young, a
former creative vice president at the J. Walter Thompson agency said, “The production of ideas is just as definite
a process as the production of Fords; the production of ideas, too, runs an
assembly line; in this production the mind follows an operative technique which
can be learned and controlled; and that its effective use is just as much a
matter of practice in the technique as in the effective use of any tool.”
Young
also defined a model to explain the creative process. Young’s model of creative
process contains five steps:
- Immersion: Getting information through research and immersing yourself in the problem
- Digestion: Working over the information and grappling with it in one’s mind to digest the problem
- Incubation: Stop the analysis, put the problem out of your conscious mind and let the subconscious mind work on it.
- Illumination: The Eureka moment; when you get a potential solution to the problem at hand
- Reality or verification: Extensive study of the idea thought for the extent to which it solves the problem and giving it a practical shape
Young’s
model is similar to Graham Wallas’ four step approach:
- Preparation: Gathering information needed to solve the problem through research and study
- Incubation: Setting problems aside to let the ideas develop
- Illumination: Seeing the solution to the problem
- Verification: Refining the idea, polishing it and then evaluating it for its appropriateness
Inputs to creative process
Preparation, Incubation and Illumination
Before
starting working on the creative, the creative types look for any background
information available about the client’s product or service, the target market,
the competition, etc. Some of the common sources of obtaining information used
by creative types are: - Reading (books, trade magazines, articles, research reports, etc.)
- Questioning the client and the people directly involved with the product such as engineers, designers, salesmen and consumers
- Getting hold of few conversations about the product/service; visiting stores, malls, and other public places to listen to what people are talking about the same
- Using the product or service; your knowledge of any product is proportional to your use of the product
- General preplanning input – includes books, periodicals, journals, trade publications, magazines, etc.
- Product specific preplanning input – qualitative and quantitative studies, problem detection studies, focused group discussions, ethnographic studies
Verification and Revision
This phase in the creative
process (might also be termed as a pretesting phase) is characterized by
evaluation and hence the revision of ideas developed by the creative types for
a product/service. The techniques used for evaluation are- focus group
discussions, message communication studies, viewer reaction profiles, etc. Any inappropriate
idea is scrapped and the ones that need revision are refined and given a more
pragmatic shape. The creative is thus finalized and ready for launch in media.
Advertising Campaigns
An
advertising campaign is a set of advertisemnets aimed at communicating a series
of messages to the existing as well as potential customers. In other words, it is a set of interrelated and co-ordinated
marketing communication activities that center on a single theme or idea that
appears in different media across a specified time period (Source:
Advertsing and Promotion: An IMC perspective, Belch and Belch). In order to
ensure that same idea is communicated through all the advertisements, the campaign
must have a strong theme for the whole creative process (refer the figure along
for some examples). The theme of an advertsng campaign is known as a campaign
theme.
Some
latest advertising campaigns
|
|
Company
or Brand
|
Campaign
|
P&G
|
Thank you Mom
|
Nike
|
Just do it
|
Adidas
|
Take the stage
|
Coca Cola
|
Open happiness
|
Cadbury
|
Kuch meetha ho jaye
|
Airtel
|
Jo mera hai vo tera hai
|
Finding major selling ideas
 |
| Figure 1: Use of Unique sell |
- Using a unique selling proposition (refer print ad in figure 1 for example)
- Creating a brand image
- Finding the inherent drama
- Positioning (refer print ad in figure 2 for example)
 |
| Figure 2: Use of positioning by Volkswagen for Polo |
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